Following the Civil War, the abundance of natural resources, emergence of new inventions, and a ready market sparked a surge in industrial growth.
As industry expanded, the demand for labor increased, drawing many children into the workforce during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Factory wages were typically so low that families relied on the income their children could earn. As a result, the number of children under 15 working in industrial jobs rose from 1.5 million in 1890 to 2 million by 1910.
Businesses preferred hiring children because they could perform unskilled labor for lower wages than adults, and their small hands made them well-suited for handling tiny parts and tools. Children were viewed as contributors to the family economy.
Immigrant and rural families often had their children work or labored alongside them. But for many of these young workers, childhood was cut short.
Few had the chance to attend school or prepare for a better future, as work took priority over education.
Working in harsh industrial conditions took a heavy toll on their health. Many child laborers were undernourished, with some experiencing stunted growth or spinal deformities.
They also developed illnesses linked to their work environments—such as tuberculosis and bronchitis—especially those employed in coal mines or cotton mills.
Long hours and physically demanding tasks led to extreme fatigue, making workplace accidents common among child laborers.
Out after midnight selling newspapers, many young boys worked late into the night. The youngest among them was just 9 years old. Harry, age 11, Eugene, and the others were only slightly older. This scene unfolded in Washington, D.C., highlighting the harsh realities of child labor at the time.
Lewis Hine (September 26, 1874 – November 3, 1940) was an American sociologist and photographer who used his camera as a powerful instrument for social reform.
In 1908, he left his teaching job to become the official photographer for the National Child Labor Committee (NCLC). Over the next ten years, Hine traveled extensively, documenting the harsh realities of child labor in American industry—especially in the Carolina Piedmont.
His compelling images played a critical role in raising public awareness and were instrumental in the NCLC’s efforts to push for changes in U.S. child labor laws.
By 1916, Congress passed the Keating-Owens Act, setting important child labor standards: a minimum working age of 14 for manufacturing and 16 for mining, an eight-hour maximum workday, a ban on night shifts for workers under 16, and the requirement of documented proof of age.
These reforms had a significant impact. By 1920, the number of child laborers had been reduced to nearly half of what it was in 1910.
As Lewis Hine observed in 1908:
“There is work that profits children, and there is work that brings profit only to employers. The object of employing children is not to train them, but to get high profits from their work.”
A small newsie downtown on a Saturday afternoon. St. Louis, Missouri.
Miners: A glimpse into the harsh conditions at the Ewen Breaker of the Pennsylvania Coal Company in South Pittston, Pennsylvania. The air was often so thick with coal dust that visibility was limited. This fine dust infiltrated deep into the boys’ lungs, posing serious health risks. Overseeing their labor, a harsh supervisor—often described as a “slave-driver”—would prod or kick the boys to keep them working. These young workers endured grueling, dangerous conditions in exchange for meager wages.
Group Portraits: At 5 p.m., a group of boys heads home from their shift at Monongah Glass Works in Fairmont, West Virginia. One boy summed up the scene, saying, “De place is lousey wid kids.” His words reflected the overwhelming presence of child laborers in the factory—evidence of how deeply embedded child labor was in the industrial workforce of the time.
The Factory: 9 p.m. at an Indiana Glass Works. Young boys still working late into the night, exhausted and surrounded by heat and danger.
Field and Farm Work: Three boys—one aged 13 and two aged 14—harvest shade-grown tobacco on the Hackett Farm in Buckland, Connecticut. The “first picking” requires them to work for hours in a crouched or sitting position, making the labor physically demanding.
The Mill: At Bibb Mill No. 1 in Macon, Georgia, some boys and girls were so small they had to climb onto the spinning frames to fix broken threads and replace empty bobbins—risky, delicate work in a dangerous environment.
Street Work: A young Bowery bootblack shines shoes on the busy streets of New York City—a common sight in the early 1900s, where boys like him worked long hours for just a few coins a day.
(Photo credit: Library of Congress).